Early intelligence tests were not without their critics.Many enduring concerns were first

Early intelligence tests were not without their critics. Many enduring concerns were first raised by the influential journalist Walter Lippman, in a series of published debates with Lewis Terman, of Stanford University, the father of IQ testing in America. Lippman pointed out the superficiality of the questions, their possible cultural biases, and the risks of trying to determine a person's intellectual potential with a brief oral or paper-and-pencil measure.

Perhaps surprisingly, the conceptualization of intelligence did not advance much in the decades following Terman's pioneering contributions. Intelligence tests came to be seen, rightly or wrongly, as primarily a tool for selecting people to fill academic or vocational niches. In one of the most famous -- if irritating -- remarks about intelligence testing, the influential Harvard psychologist E. G. Boring declared, "intelligence is what the tests test." So long as these tests did what they were supposed to do(that is, give some indication of school success), it did not seem necessary or prudent to probe too deeply into their meaning or to explore alternative views of the human intellect.

Psychologists who study intelligence have argued chiefly about two questions. The first: Is intelligence singular, or does it consist of various more or less independent intellectual faculties？ The purists -- ranging from the turn-of-the-century English psychologist Charles Spearman to his latter-day disciples Richard J. Herrntein and Charles Murray -- defend the notion of a single overarching "g", or general intelligence. The pluralists -- ranging from L. L. Thurstone, of the University of Chicago, who posited seven vectors of the mind, to J. P. Guilford, of the University of Southern California, who discerned 150 factors of the intellect-construe intelligence as composed of some or even many dissociable components.

The public is more interested in the second question: Is intelligence (or are intelligences) largely inherited.'？ This is by and large a Western question. In the Confucian societies of East Asia individual differences in endowment are assumed to be modest, and differences in achievement are thought to be due largely to effort. In the West, however, many students of the subject sympathize with the view -- defended within psychology by Lewis Terman, among others -- that intelligence is inborn and one can do little to alter one's intellectual birthright.

Studies of identical twins reared apart provide surprisingly strong support for the "heritability" of psychometric intelligence. That is, if one wants to predict someone's score on an intelligence test, the scores of the biological parents (even if the child has not had appreciable contact with them) are more likely to prove relevant than the scores of the adoptive parents. By the same token, the IQs of identical twins are more similar than the IQs of fraternal twins. And, contrary to common sense, the IQs of biologically related people grow closer in the later years of life.

Paragraph 1 of this passage suggests that ______.

A．intelligence tests are criticized by many people

B．Walter Lippman is an influential journalist

C．Lewis Terman of Stanford University is the father of IQ testing in America

D．Walter Lippman suspects the authenticity of IQ testing